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Lattimer massacre
The Lattimer massacre was the violent deaths of 19 unarmed striking immigrant anthracite coal miners at the Lattimer mine near Hazleton, Pennsylvania, on September 10, 1897.〔Anderson, John W. ''Transitions: From Eastern Europe to Anthracite Community to College Classroom.'' Bloomington, Ind.: iUniverse, 2005; ISBN 0-595-33732-5〕〔Miller, Randall M. and Pencak, William. ''Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth.'' State College, Penn.: Penn State Press, 2003; ISBN 0-271-02214-0〕 The miners, mostly of Polish, Slovak, Lithuanian and German ethnicity, were shot and killed by a Luzerne County sheriff's posse. Scores more workers were wounded.〔Estimates of the number of wounded are inexact. They range from a low of 17 wounded (Duwe, Grant. ''Mass Murder in the United States: A History''. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2007; ISBN 0-7864-3150-4) to a as many as 49 injured (DeLeon, Clark. ''Pennsylvania Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff.'' 3rd rev. ed. Guilford, Conn.: Globe Pequot, 2008; ISBN 0-7627-4588-6). Other estimates include 30 wounded (Lewis, Ronald L. ''Welsh Americans: A History of Assimilation in the Coalfields.'' Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2008; ISBN 0-8078-3220-0), 32 wounded (Anderson, ''Transitions: From Eastern Europe to Anthracite Community to College Classroom,'' 2005; Berger, Stefan; Croll, Andy; and Laporte, Norman. ''Towards A Comparative History of Coalfield Societies.'' Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005; ISBN 0-7546-3777-8; Campion, Joan. ''Smokestacks and Black Diamonds: A History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania''. Easton, Penn.: Canal History and Technology Press, 1997; ISBN 0-930973-19-4), 35 wounded (Foner, Philip S. ''First Facts of American Labor: A Comprehensive Collection of Labor Firsts in the United States.'' New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984; ISBN 0-8419-0742-0; Miller and Pencak, ''Pennsylvania: A History of the Commonwealth,'' 2003; Derks, Scott. ''Working Americans, 1880–2006: Volume VII: Social Movements.'' Amenia, NY: Grey House Publishing, 2006; ISBN 1-59237-101-9), 38 wounded (Weir, Robert E. and Hanlan, James P. ''Historical Encyclopedia of American Labor, Vol. 1.'' Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood Press, 2004; ISBN 0-313-32863-3), 39 wounded (Long, Priscilla. ''Where the Sun Never Shines: A History of America's Bloody Coal Industry.'' Minneapolis: Paragon House, 1989; ISBN 1-55778-224-5; Novak, Michael. ''The Guns of Lattimer.'' Reprint ed. New York: Transaction Publishers, 1996; ISBN 1-56000-764-8), and 40 wounded (Beers, Paul B. ''The Pennsylvania Sampler: A Biography of the Keystone State and Its People''. Mechanicsburg, Penn.: Stackpole Books, 1970).〕 The massacre was a turning point in the history of the United Mine Workers (UMW).〔
==Background==
The economies of Central and Eastern Europe were in difficulty in the late 19th century. The European rural population was growing faster than either the agricultural or new industrial sectors of the economy could absorb, industrialization was disrupting both the agricultural and craft economy, and there was increasing competition from large-scale commercial and foreign agricultural producers.〔Murrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; and Gerstle, Gary. ''Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Concise Edition.'' 4th ed. Florence, Kentucky: Cengage Learning, 2008; ISBN 0-495-56598-9〕 These factors drove most of the mass immigration to the United States.〔 Disproportionate numbers of new Slavic immigrants worked in the coal mining industry,〔 where they were among the most exploited of all mine workers.〔Blatz, Perry K. ''Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875–1925.'' Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1994 ISBN 0-7914-1819-7〕 During strikes in Northeast Pennsylvania by English-speaking miners in 1875 and 1887, many Slavic miners were imported as strikebreakers, and were "despised as scabs" by the English-speaking immigrant and American miners of the region.〔Klein, Philip Shriver and Hoogenboom, Ari. ''A History of Pennsylvania.'' 2d ed. State College, Penn.: Penn State Press, 1973; ISBN 0-271-01934-4 p. 330.〕
Conditions in coal mines of the late 19th century were harsh. Mine safety was very poor, such that 32,000 miners in Northeast Pennsylvania had lost their lives since 1870.〔Richards, John Stuart. ''Early Coal Mining in the Anthracite Region.'' Mount Pleasant, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2002. p. 7; ISBN 0-7385-0978-7〕 Wages, already low in a highly competitive industry, fell 17 percent during the mid-1890s after a coal industry slump.〔〔Graebner, William. ''Coal-Mining Safety in the Progressive Period: The Political Economy of Reform.'' Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1976; ISBN 0-8131-1339-3〕 Although wages had improved some by the fall of 1897, anthracite coal companies in the region cut wages and consolidated operations within the mines (often resulting in more laborious working conditions).〔 In some cases, companies forced workers to lease homes from the company and required them to see only company doctors when injured.〔
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